Political Theories

liberty in political science Liberty is one of the most cherished and debated concepts in political science. It has been at the heart of revolutions, constitutions, and democratic struggles across the world. Whenever people have demanded rights, equality, or freedom from oppression, they have invoked the idea of liberty. Yet, despite its central place in political thought, liberty is not a simple or single concept. It carries multiple layers of meaning, different interpretations, and at times, even contradictions. At its core, liberty represents freedom—but freedom is never simple. What does it mean to be free? Does freedom only mean the absence of restrictions, or does it also mean having the ability to live a dignified life? In political theory, liberty broadly refers to the condition in which individuals are free to act according to their own will, without undue restraint, but in a way that respects the freedom of others. It is about creating a balance between individual autonomy and the rules of society. Too little liberty may lead to oppression, while too much unchecked liberty can result in chaos and harm to others. To fully understand liberty, we need to explore its meaning, its types, the views of classical and modern thinkers, and its relevance in contemporary politics. What is liberty The word “liberty” comes from the Latin word libertas, meaning freedom. In everyday life, liberty is often equated with the absence of restrictions—being able to do whatever one wishes. However, in political theory, liberty, meaning is deeper. Liberty does not mean absolute freedom. Absolute freedom is impossible, If everyone were free to do anything without limits, society would quickly descend into conflict. For example, if one person’s freedom to play loud music at midnight clashes with another person’s freedom to sleep peacefully, unrestricted liberty harms rather than helps. Therefore, liberty is best understood as freedom within limits— where individuals are free to act, but without violating the equal freedom of others. So, liberty is not about lawlessness; it is about balancing personal freedom with social order. This balance is what makes liberty a cornerstone of democratic societies. Difference Between Negative and Positive Liberty (Isaiah Berlin’s Two Concepts) One of the most influential ways to understand liberty comes from political theorist Isaiah Berlin, who in his essay Two Concepts of Liberty (1958), distinguished between negative liberty and positive liberty. (a) Negative Liberty – “Freedom To” • Negative liberty means being free from interference or external control (coercion by the state, society, or other individuals). • A person is free when no authority, individual, or institution prevents them from acting as they wish. • For example, if you are free to choose your career, practice your religion, or express your opinion without government censorship, you enjoy negative liberty. Thinkers like Thomas Hobbes and John Locke emphasized this view of liberty. Hobbes saw liberty as the absence of obstacles imposed by others, while Locke linked liberty to protection from arbitrary power, particularly by the government. He argued that governments should protect natural rights—life, liberty, and property—by limiting their own power. (b) Negative Liberty – “Freedom From” • Positive liberty is about the ability to control one’s own life. • It asks: Do people have the capacity, resources, and opportunities to use their freedom meaningfully? • Example: A poor child may have the right to education (negative liberty), but without money, books, or schools, they cannot enjoy real freedom (positive liberty). • Positive liberty requires that individuals are empowered—through access to education, healthcare, and opportunities—to live a dignified life. Thinkers like Jean-Jacques Rousseau and later Amartya Sen stressed this view of liberty. Rousseau believed true liberty comes when individuals obey laws they have collectively made, while Sen’s “capabilities approach” shows how real freedoms depend on social and economic conditions.Both forms of liberty are essential. Negative liberty ensures individuals are free from oppression, while positive liberty empowers us to live freely and ensures they have the actual ability to use their freedom. Classical Thinkers on Liberty The idea of liberty has been shaped by many great thinkers throughout history. Each provided a unique perspective, reflecting the social and political conditions of their time. John Locke (1632–1704) Locke is often called the “father of liberalism.” For him, liberty meant living under laws made by consent, not under arbitrary power. He argued that humans are born with natural rights—life, liberty, and property—which governments must protect. Justice and liberty, therefore, were tied to limiting state power. Locke’s views greatly influenced the American and French revolutions, where liberty became a rallying cry against monarchy and tyranny. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) Rousseau distinguished between natural freedom and civil freedom. In the state of nature, humans had natural liberty but no security. In society, liberty is preserved when individuals participate in making laws for themselves. His idea of the “general will” meant that liberty exists when individuals obey laws they have collectively agreed upon. Rousseau thus emphasized collective self-rule as the foundation of liberty. John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) Mill’s book On Liberty remains a classic defence of individual freedom. He argued that the only reason society or the state can limit someone’s liberty is to prevent harm to others—a principle known as the “Harm Principle.” For Mill, freedom of thought and expression were particularly vital. Defended freedom of speech, even unpopular opinions, he argued, must be protected because they keep society open, critical, and capable of progress. Mill also linked liberty to personal growth, stating that individuals can flourish only if they are free to pursue their own paths. • Example: Protesting against government policies should be allowed unless it turns into violence that harms others. Modern Thinkers on Liberty In the modern era, liberty has been redefined to include social and economic dimensions. T.H. Green (1836–1882) Green challenged the idea that liberty is just the absence of restraint. He argued that true liberty means the ability to realize one’s potential. This requires not only freedom from interference but also positive conditions such as education, health, and social support.

John Rawls’s Theory of Justice John Rawls’s Theory of Justice (1921–2002) stands out as one of the most significant political philosophers of the 20th century. His groundbreaking work A Theory of Justice (1971) transformed the way we think about fairness, equality, and the moral foundations of a democratic state. In John Rawls’s Theory of Justice, Rawls introduced the concept of “justice as fairness”, a principle that argues a just society is one where its laws and institutions operate fairly for all citizens—not just for the wealthy or powerful. Unlike utilitarianism, which focuses on maximizing overall happiness (sometimes at the cost of minority rights), Rawls argued that justice must be the first priority when shaping laws and social structures. His contributions (Theory of Justice )remain central to contemporary debates on liberty, democracy, equality, and welfare policies, making Rawls a guiding figure in both political theory and real-world policymaking. Foundational Concepts of John Rawls’s Theory of Justice To explain how a just society could be imagined, Rawls developed a thought experiment based on two key ideas: the Original Position and the Veil of Ignorance, in his Theory of Justice. These tools allow us to reason about justice in a fair and unbiased way. The Original Position – A Neutral or Fair Starting Point Rawls asked us to imagine a scenario where people come together to decide the rules of society—but they do this before they are born. At this stage, no one knows whether they will be rich or poor, privileged or disadvantaged, male or female, strong or weak. This hypothetical situation is what Rawls called the Original Position. In this setup, everyone is equal and no one knows their social position. Because of this, people are compelled to choose principles that are fair to all, since nobody would risk creating a system that might disadvantage them once they are born into it. This ensures that the foundations of society are agreed upon impartially. The Veil of Ignorance – Removing Bias To strengthen this fairness, Rawls introduced the idea of the Veil of Ignorance. Under this veil, individuals are stripped of knowledge about their identity, class, religion, talents, or natural abilities. The only thing they know is that they will be a member of society once it begins. This “ignorance” prevents favouritism . No one can make laws that benefit their own group because they don’t know which group they will belong to. In this situation of uncertainty, Rawls believed rational individuals would choose principles that protect the most disadvantaged. Here, the guiding logic is the maximin rule: maximizing the minimum. In other words, people would design a system where even the worst possible position in society guarantees a decent life. The Two Principles of Justice by John Rawls From this fair starting point, Rawls argued that people would agree on two fundamental principles of justice. Importantly, these principles are not equal in weight—the principle of liberty comes first and cannot be sacrificed for the sake of social or economic gain. First Principle – Equal Basic Liberties The Principle of Greatest Equal Liberty asserts that every citizen should enjoy the same set of basic freedoms, and these freedoms must be as extensive as possible without undermining the freedoms of others. Some of these include: • Political liberty: the right to vote and participate in public decision-making.• Freedom of speech, thought, religion, and assembly.• Right to own personal property.• Protection from arbitrary arrest or oppression. For Rawls, these liberties form the foundation of justice. They cannot be traded away or reduced for the sake of economic growth or social stability. A society must guarantee these freedoms before addressing questions of inequality. Second Principle – Fair Inequalities Rawls acknowledged that absolute equality is unrealistic. However, inequalities are only acceptable under two strict conditions: The Difference Principle Social and economic inequalities are justified only if they result in benefits for the least advantaged members of society. For example, higher salaries for doctors are acceptable because they create incentives for skilled people to enter the profession—which in turn benefits everyone, including the poor, through better healthcare. Together, these principles balance liberty, equality, opportunity, and fairness Fair Equality of Opportunity Opportunities in society must be genuinely open to all, not just legally but also practically. This means removing barriers such as poor education, systemic discrimination, or inherited privilege. True fairness requires that a child from a disadvantaged background has the same chance at success as one from a wealthy family. Together, these principles form a balance: freedom for all, with fairness in opportunities and protections for the disadvantaged. Rawls’s Vision of a Just Society – Freedom with Fairness For Rawls, a just society is both free and fair. It is democratic, respects individual rights, but also ensures that no one is left behind.A society guided by John Rawls’s Theory of Justice would: • Guarantees equal rights to all citizens.• Structures its economy to work for everyone, not just the elite.• Provides welfare systems, healthcare, and education to uplift the disadvantaged. This does not mean forced economic equality. Instead, it creates a society where wealth and opportunity are distributed in ways that ensure dignity and decent living conditions for all. Modern Thinkers Compared with John Rawls’s Theory of Justice To understand Rawls better, it’s useful to compare him with other modern thinkers. Philosopher Core Theory Key Concepts Focus of Justice State’s Role John Rawls Justice as Fairness Original Position, Veil of Ignorance, Two Principles Fair distribution of primary goods Justifies welfare state policies Robert Nozick Entitlement Theory Acquisition, Transfer, Rectification, Minimal State Justice in property rights Minimal state, opposes redistribution Amartya Sen Capability Approach Capabilities, Functioning, Real Freedoms Real opportunities for well-being State expands opportunities, addresses inequality. Criticisms of John Rawls’s Theory of Justice Like any influential idea, Rawls’s theory attracted strong critiques from fellow philosophers. Robert Nozick’s Entitlement Theory – Libertarian Critique Robert Nozick challenged Rawls with his Entitlement Theory, presented in Anarchy, State and Utopia. Drawing from Locke, Nozick defended the “night-watchman state”—a minimal government